Introduction: Singapore’s Vertical Ascent and the Composite Revolution

The skyline of Singapore is a powerful testament to a nation’s ambition, a vertical metropolis born from the necessity of land scarcity.1 With over 80% of its population residing in high-rise buildings, the city-state has become a global laboratory for vertical urbanism, constantly pushing the boundaries of architectural and engineering possibility.2 

This relentless drive skyward is not merely a function of adding more floors; it is a complex engineering narrative, a story of overcoming immense physical forces and material limitations. At the heart of this narrative lies the strategic and sophisticated adoption of composite structures.

The evolution of Singapore’s skyscrapers is intrinsically linked to the development of these hybrid systems. Composite structures, primarily the intelligent combination of structural steel and reinforced concrete, are not just another material choice in the designer’s palette. 

They represent a fundamental enabler of architectural vision, structural efficiency, and the nation’s broader industrial transformation goals. They are the technological backbone that allows Singapore to build taller, faster, and more efficiently, turning the constraints of geography into an opportunity for innovation.

This report provides an exhaustive analysis of the critical role composite structures play in optimizing tall building design within the unique context of Singapore. It will begin by deconstructing the fundamental engineering challenges inherent in skyscraper design—the battle against lateral forces, the imperative of weight optimization, and the complexities of building on challenging ground. 

It will then explore the core principles of composite construction, demonstrating how the synergy of steel and concrete provides a direct and elegant solution to these problems. The analysis will subsequently pivot to the specific Singaporean blueprint, dissecting the nation’s unique regulatory ecosystem, its pioneering adoption of international codes, and its government-led push towards industrialised construction methods like Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) and Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC). 

To ground these principles in reality, the report will present in-depth case studies of Singapore’s most iconic composite skyscrapers, including Guoco Tower, The Sail @ Marina Bay, and CapitaSpring. Finally, it will look to the horizon, exploring the emerging trends in materials and digital technologies that will shape the next generation of Singapore’s vertical landscape.

 

Section 1: The Vertical Imperative: Fundamental Engineering Challenges in Tall Building Design

 

The quest to build taller is a constant battle against the laws of physics. As structures ascend, they enter a domain where the design considerations shift dramatically. The simple act of supporting gravity becomes secondary to a host of more complex and powerful forces. For engineers and architects, mastering the design of a tall building means mastering the intricate interplay between lateral loads, structural mass, and the ground upon which it stands.

 

1.1 The “Premium for Height”: Why Lateral Loads Govern Skyscraper Design

 

As a building grows in height, its structural design is increasingly governed not by the vertical pull of gravity, but by the horizontal push of lateral forces, primarily from wind and, to a lesser extent in Singapore’s context, seismic activity.3 This phenomenon was famously termed the “premium for height” by the structural engineer Fazlur Khan, who recognized that beyond a certain threshold (typically 10 to 15 storeys), the structural material required to resist lateral sway becomes the dominant factor in the building’s cost and design.3 At this point, stiffness—the ability to resist deformation—becomes more critical than pure strength.6

In Singapore’s climate, buildings are generally engineered to withstand formidable wind gust speeds, which can reach up to 143 kilometres per hour.2 The wind’s effect is not a simple static push. As wind flows around a tall, slender structure, it creates alternating low-pressure zones on the leeward sides, a phenomenon known as vortex shedding. 

This shedding generates a rhythmic, oscillating force perpendicular to the wind’s direction, causing the building to sway.2 If the frequency of this oscillation matches the building’s natural resonant frequency, the sway can be dangerously amplified. Therefore, a significant portion of the structural design is dedicated to providing enough stiffness to limit this lateral drift to an acceptable range, typically between

H/500 and H/1000, where H is the building height, to ensure both structural integrity and occupant comfort.9

While Singapore is not located in a seismically active zone, it is not immune to ground tremors. The city-state’s geology, characterized by soft marine clay formations, can amplify the long-period ground motions from distant but powerful earthquakes in Sumatra.2 For tall, slender towers with long natural periods of vibration, this amplification can pose a significant risk. 

This consideration was a pioneering design driver for The Sail @ Marina Bay, which was the first project in Singapore to voluntarily adopt seismic design principles to improve the safety and structural performance of its exceptionally slender towers.10 The combination of these lateral forces means that a tall building’s structural system must be conceived primarily as a massive vertical cantilever beam, fixed at the ground, designed to resist bending and shear forces along its entire height.6

 

1.2 The Weight Equation: Optimizing Mass for Structural and Economic Efficiency

 

A building’s self-weight is a fundamental load that its structure must carry down to the foundations.3 Logically, a lighter building is a more efficient and economical one, as it requires smaller columns, beams, and foundations, thereby reducing material consumption and cost.4 The structural weight, often measured in kilograms per square metre (

kg/m2), is a critical metric that architects and developers monitor closely throughout the design process.9

However, this creates a fundamental design paradox. The very act of making a building taller and more slender to resist lateral loads often requires adding more structural material to increase stiffness. In a conventional system, adding stiffness means adding mass.3 

This increased weight then requires even larger foundations and vertical elements to support it, creating a feedback loop that drives up costs and reduces efficiency. This tension between the need to be light for gravity load efficiency and the need to be stiff for lateral load resistance is a central challenge in skyscraper design.3

The ideal structural system must therefore break this cycle. It must provide exceptional stiffness to control lateral sway without imposing a significant weight penalty. This quest for high stiffness at a low mass is the primary driver that pushes engineers away from monolithic steel or concrete systems and towards more advanced, optimized solutions like composite structures.

 

1.3 The Foundation Challenge: Building Tall on Complex Ground

 

A skyscraper is only as strong as its foundation. The immense loads from a tall building—both vertical gravity loads and the massive overturning moments from lateral forces—must be safely transferred into the ground.15 In a dense urban environment like Singapore, this is complicated by variable and often challenging ground conditions, including reclaimed land and deep deposits of soft marine clay.7 Designing foundations for these conditions requires sophisticated analysis that goes far beyond traditional methods, as engineers are often extrapolating well beyond prior experience.15

The foundation and the superstructure are not independent entities; they form a single, interactive system.15 The design must holistically consider the ultimate load capacity, the potential for overall and differential settlement, and the dynamic response of the entire structure-foundation system to wind and seismic events.15 

Over-simplification of geotechnical matters by the structural engineer, or of structural matters by the geotechnical engineer, can lead to suboptimal or even unsafe designs, making close collaboration between these disciplines essential.15

To address these challenges, Singapore’s landmark projects often employ advanced foundation systems. A prominent example is the piled raft foundation, which strategically combines piles with a large concrete raft.15 The raft distributes the load over a wide area, while a limited number of strategically placed piles enhance the foundation’s stiffness and load capacity, particularly in the most heavily loaded areas under the building’s core.7 

This hybrid approach allows engineers to meet stringent settlement criteria while optimizing the foundation design for both performance and cost. The complex foundations for projects like The Sail @ Marina Bay and Guoco Tower, built on challenging sites, stand as testaments to the advanced geo-structural engineering required to support Singapore’s vertical ambitions.10

 

Section 2: The Composite Solution: A Fundamental Shift in Structural Engineering

 

Faced with the tightly coupled challenges of lateral loads, structural weight, and foundation design, the construction industry required a solution that could offer high performance without the compromises of traditional materials. That solution emerged in the form of composite construction, a paradigm shift that leverages the distinct properties of different materials to create a system that is far superior to the sum of its parts.

 

2.1 Defining Composite Construction: More Than the Sum of its Parts

 

At its core, a composite structure is one that is composed of two or more distinct materials, engineered to work in unison to exploit the individual strengths of each material while minimizing their weaknesses.18 

When combined, these constituents form a new hybrid material with enhanced properties tailored for a specific engineering application.18 In civil engineering, this most commonly refers to the combination of structural steel and reinforced concrete.13

The fundamental principle involves a “matrix” material that binds and supports a “reinforcement” material.18 In steel-concrete composites, the concrete typically acts as the matrix, encasing and protecting the steel reinforcement. The steel, in turn, provides the tensile strength and ductility that concrete lacks.22 

The magic of composite action lies in ensuring these two materials act as a single unit. This is achieved through a mechanical connection at the interface between the steel and concrete, most often through welded steel studs or other forms of shear connectors.21 These connectors prevent slip between the two materials, forcing them to deform together and share the applied loads in the most efficient way possible.21

 

2.2 The Synergy of Steel and Concrete: A Material Partnership

 

The partnership between steel and concrete is a near-perfect synergy for tall building construction, as their properties are remarkably complementary.21

• Structural Steel offers an excellent strength-to-weight ratio, meaning it can carry significant loads with relatively little mass.13 It possesses high tensile strength, making it ideal for resisting pulling and bending forces, and its inherent ductility allows it to deform significantly without fracturing, a critical property for seismic resistance. Furthermore, steel components can be precisely fabricated off-site, leading to faster and more accurate construction.24
• Reinforced Concrete, on the other hand, boasts immense compressive strength, making it exceptionally good at resisting crushing forces.13 It is inherently durable, provides excellent fire resistance, and is a relatively low-cost and readily available material. Its mass also contributes to the overall stiffness and damping of a structure, helping to control vibrations.24

When combined in a composite system, these materials are assigned the roles they perform best. The concrete is primarily used to resist compressive forces and provides the necessary bulk, stiffness, and fire and corrosion protection for the steel elements. The steel is used to resist tensile forces, providing the ductility and lightweight framing that allows for long, open spans.21 

This intelligent division of labor results in a hybrid structural system that is lighter than an all-concrete frame but stiffer and more robust than an all-steel frame, making it the most suitable choice for modern high-rise buildings.21

 

2.3 Core Advantages Driving Adoption

 

The theoretical synergy of steel and concrete translates into tangible, performance-driven advantages that have made composite construction the dominant structural system for tall and supertall buildings worldwide.21

• Enhanced Strength-to-Weight Ratio: This is arguably the most significant advantage. By using each material to its full potential, composite members can achieve the required strength and stiffness with a smaller cross-section and lower overall weight compared to their monolithic counterparts.19 This reduction in self-weight cascades down through the structure, leading to smaller columns and significantly lighter foundation loads, which is a major economic and engineering benefit.19
• Superior Stiffness and Strength: The composite action between steel and concrete creates members with exceptional rigidity. This is crucial for tall buildings, as it allows engineers to effectively control lateral drift and accelerations caused by wind, ensuring the building’s stability and the comfort of its occupants.21
• Design Flexibility & Spatial Efficiency: The ability to use smaller columns and shallower beams is a major boon for architects and developers.26 It translates directly into more net leasable floor area—the primary revenue-generating component of a commercial building. It also enables longer, column-free spans, creating the large, open-plan spaces desired in modern offices and residences.28 This material efficiency also empowers architects to design the complex and aesthetically ambitious geometries—such as curves, tapers, and cantilevers—that define modern skylines.19
• Construction Speed and Economy: Composite construction often accelerates the building program. The steel frame can be erected quickly, providing an immediate platform for subsequent trades to begin work on multiple floors simultaneously.29 While composite materials can have a higher initial cost, the overall project economy is often superior due to the reduced steel tonnage, smaller foundations, faster construction cycle, and increased leasable area.21

The following table provides a clear, comparative analysis of the primary structural materials, illustrating why composite construction consistently emerges as the optimized choice for the multifaceted demands of tall building design.

Table 1: Comparative Analysis of Primary Structural Materials

Parameter	Structural Steel	Reinforced Concrete	Steel-Concrete Composite
Strength-to-Weight Ratio	Excellent. High strength for low weight.	Poor. Very heavy for its strength.	Very Good. Lighter than concrete, leveraging steel’s efficiency.
Compressive Strength	Good, but prone to buckling.	Excellent. Its primary strength.	Excellent. Concrete takes compression, steel prevents buckling.
Tensile Strength	Excellent. Its primary strength.	Poor. Relies entirely on steel rebar.	Excellent. Steel component provides high tensile capacity.
Stiffness	Good.	Very Good. High mass provides rigidity.	Excellent. Combination provides high stiffness at lower weight.
Fire Resistance	Poor. Requires extensive fire protection.	Excellent. Inherently fire-resistant.	Very Good. Concrete provides inherent fire protection to the steel.
Construction Speed	Fast. Suited for prefabrication and rapid erection.	Slow. Requires on-site formwork, pouring, and curing time.	Fast. Steel frame erection is rapid, followed by concrete work.
Cost	High material cost, but lower labor/time.	Low material cost, but higher labor/time.	Optimized. Reduced steel tonnage and faster construction often lead to overall project savings.
Design Flexibility	Very Good. Allows for long spans and open spaces.	Limited. Requires larger columns and shorter spans.	Excellent. Achieves long spans with smaller members, maximizing usable space and architectural freedom.
Summary	Lightweight and fast, but requires costly fire protection and can lack stiffness.	Stiff and fire-resistant, but heavy, slow to build, and spatially inefficient.	Optimized Balance: Combines the speed and tensile strength of steel with the stiffness and compressive strength of concrete, creating the most efficient system for tall buildings.

Sources: 13

 

Section 3: Composite Systems in Practice: Anatomy of a Modern Skyscraper

 

The theoretical advantages of composite construction are realized through a family of sophisticated structural systems. A modern composite skyscraper is not merely a collection of individual hybrid elements; it is a highly integrated, hierarchical system where each component—from the columns and floors to the core and outriggers—is designed to play a specialized role in a clear and efficient load path.

 

3.1 The Vertical Backbone: Composite Columns

 

The columns are the primary vertical load-bearing elements in a tall building, and their efficiency has a profound impact on the entire design. Composite columns offer high strength in a compact cross-section, which is critical for maximizing usable floor space, especially in the valuable lower levels of a tower. There are two predominant types used in high-rise construction.21

• Concrete-Filled Tubes (CFT): This system consists of a hollow structural steel tube, either circular or rectangular, that is filled with concrete.29 The CFT column is a model of efficiency for several reasons. The steel tube acts as permanent formwork for the concrete, eliminating the time and cost of traditional formwork. It also provides confinement to the concrete core, which significantly increases the concrete’s compressive strength and ductility. In turn, the concrete core prevents the thin walls of the steel tube from buckling inward, allowing the full strength of the steel to be utilized.21 This symbiotic relationship makes CFT columns exceptionally strong, simple to design, and fast to erect. The Cheung Kong Center in Hong Kong is a landmark project that extensively utilized this system for its perimeter columns for reasons of simplicity, speed, and economy.29
• Steel-Reinforced Concrete (SRC): Also known as concrete-encased steel sections, this system involves embedding a structural steel section (like an I-beam or a cruciform shape) within a reinforced concrete column.21 SRC columns provide excellent stiffness and strength and are often integrated directly into the building’s central core walls as “hidden columns” at corners or junctions.21 This allows for a seamless connection between the concrete core and any steel floor beams, facilitating a rapid construction sequence where the floor framing can be installed before the final concrete pour is completed.21

 

3.2 Spanning the Floors: Composite Beams and Decking Systems

 

The floor systems in a tall building must carry gravity loads efficiently over large spans while minimizing their own depth to maximize floor-to-ceiling height. Composite beams and slabs are the standard solution for achieving this.30

The system works by connecting a steel beam to the concrete floor slab above it using shear connectors, which are typically steel studs welded to the top flange of the beam and embedded in the concrete.30 This connection forces the steel beam and the concrete slab to act as a single, composite T-beam. 

The wide concrete slab becomes a highly effective compression flange, while the steel beam resists the tensile forces.21 This composite action dramatically increases the strength and stiffness of the floor beam, allowing it to span longer distances with a much shallower depth compared to a non-composite beam.21

This efficiency is further enhanced by the use of profiled steel decking. This corrugated steel sheet serves multiple purposes: it acts as permanent formwork for the concrete slab, eliminating the need for temporary supports; it provides a safe working platform during construction; and it acts as the primary tensile reinforcement for the slab itself, reducing the amount of rebar required.29 

The combination of composite beams and steel decking creates a floor system that is lightweight, fast to construct, and spatially efficient.

 

3.3 Resisting the Sway: Composite Cores, Shear Walls, and Outrigger Systems

 

While columns and beams handle gravity loads, the primary resistance to the immense lateral forces of wind and seismic events in a modern skyscraper comes from a specialized system-level approach. This is where the true power of composite design becomes evident.

• Composite Shear Walls and Cores: The central core of a skyscraper, typically housing elevators and stairwells, is the building’s main structural spine. By embedding steel plates or structural sections within these reinforced concrete walls, engineers create composite shear walls. This hybridization dramatically increases the wall’s shear strength, axial load capacity, and, most importantly, its ductility—the ability to deform without catastrophic failure under seismic loads.21 This enhancement can also permit the use of thinner walls, freeing up valuable core space.
• Outrigger Systems: For very tall and slender buildings, relying on the core alone is inefficient. To dramatically boost lateral stiffness, engineers employ outrigger systems. Outriggers are stiff horizontal arms, often configured as deep steel or composite trusses, that connect the central core to the building’s outermost columns.4 When a lateral force causes the core to bend, the outriggers engage the perimeter columns, forcing them to work in tension and compression. This effectively mobilizes the full width of the building to resist the overturning moment, creating a much larger and more efficient lever arm than the core could provide on its own. This system drastically reduces lateral drift and sway.4 To avoid interfering with usable floor space, outriggers are almost always located within the building’s mechanical floors.21
• Belt Trusses: Often used in conjunction with outriggers, belt trusses are horizontal trusses that wrap around the perimeter of the building at the same level as the outriggers. They serve to distribute the massive forces from the outriggers to a larger number of perimeter columns, ensuring no single column is overstressed. They also help to mitigate a phenomenon known as “shear lag,” improving the efficiency of the building’s “tube” action.21

The application of these systems reveals a clear, system-level design philosophy. It is not simply about using composite materials in isolation, but about creating a sophisticated and hierarchical load path. Lateral forces on the building facade are transferred by the composite floor diaphragms into the stiff composite core. 

The core resists these forces by bending, and at discrete levels, the outrigger systems transfer this bending action into axial forces in the super-strong composite perimeter columns. The entire structure works as a single, highly optimized unit to provide stability with the minimum possible material and weight.

 

Section 4: The Singaporean Blueprint: Regulation, Innovation, and Industrialisation

 

The widespread adoption of composite structures in Singapore is not merely a response to engineering demands; it is the result of a deliberate and highly integrated national strategy. The city-state has cultivated a unique ecosystem where government policy, forward-looking regulations, and the drive for industrial innovation are mutually reinforcing. This framework has not only enabled the construction of advanced composite skyscrapers but has also positioned Singapore as a global leader in high-productivity building methods.

 

4.1 The Regulatory Framework: BCA, Eurocodes, and National Annexes

 

At the heart of Singapore’s construction landscape is the Building and Construction Authority (BCA), the central regulator responsible for ensuring safety, quality, and sustainability in the built environment.2 

Recognizing the need for a modern, performance-based design standard to facilitate more advanced structural solutions, Singapore made a strategic decision to transition from the older British Standards to the more comprehensive European Standards, known as the Eurocodes.

For composite structures, the key standard is SS EN 1994: “Design of composite steel and concrete structures”.35 This adoption was not a simple copy-and-paste exercise. The Eurocodes are designed with a unique feature that allows for Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs), which let individual countries tailor specific clauses to their local conditions, material availability, and established engineering practices. 

The Singapore Structural Steel Society (SSSS) played a leading role in developing the crucial Singapore National Annex (NA) to SS EN 1994-1-1.35 This NA is not just a supplementary document; it is an integral and legally binding part of the standard that must be read in conjunction with the main Eurocode text.38 This tailored approach ensures that the design of composite structures in Singapore is both internationally aligned and locally optimized.

 

4.2 Pushing the Boundaries: The BC4:2021 Guide for High-Strength Materials

 

As architects and engineers push buildings ever higher, the demand for materials with greater strength and efficiency becomes more acute. Standard design codes like Eurocode 4 have inherent limits on the strength of concrete and steel they officially cover. To overcome this limitation and foster further innovation, the BCA, in collaboration with academic experts from the National University of Singapore, developed a groundbreaking supplementary guide: BC4:2021, “Design Guide for Steel-Concrete Composite Columns with High Strength Materials”.40

This guide is a prime example of Singapore’s proactive, performance-based regulatory approach. It officially extends the proven design methodologies of Eurocode 4 to cover the use of high-strength concrete up to grade C90/105 and high-strength structural steel up to grade S550.40 

The impact of this guide is profound. It provides engineers with the certified tools and confidence to design composite columns that are significantly more slender and efficient than would be possible under the base Eurocode. This directly translates to tangible benefits in supertall building design: smaller column footprints increase the net usable and leasable floor area, and the higher material efficiency can lead to overall weight and cost reductions. 

The pioneering use of Grade 80 concrete in The Sail @ Marina Bay, which allowed for a one-third reduction in column sizes, foreshadowed the need for such a guide and demonstrates its practical value.11

 

4.3 The Productivity Drive: Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA)

 

Beyond safety and performance, Singapore’s government has identified low productivity and a heavy reliance on foreign manpower as critical systemic challenges for its construction sector.41 The strategic response to this is the Construction Industry Transformation Map (ITM), a national initiative with Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DfMA) as one of its central pillars.43

DfMA is a paradigm shift in how buildings are conceived. It is a philosophy that moves away from traditional, sequential on-site construction towards a process where buildings are designed explicitly for off-site manufacturing in a controlled factory environment and subsequent on-site assembly.41 

This approach emphasizes standardization, repetition, and an early freezing of the design to allow for parallel manufacturing and site preparation, dramatically compressing project timelines.46 The goals are clear: to boost productivity by up to 40%, improve construction quality and safety, and reduce the environmental nuisances of noise and dust associated with conventional building sites.42

 

4.4 Building with Blocks: The Rise of Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC)

 

Prefabricated Prefinished Volumetric Construction (PPVC) is the most advanced embodiment of the DfMA philosophy in Singapore.42 This “game-changing technology” involves the off-site fabrication of complete, three-dimensional modules—essentially entire rooms or sections of an apartment—which are fully fitted out with internal finishes, fixtures, and services before being transported to the site and stacked together like building blocks.42

The adoption of PPVC for high-rise buildings, however, introduces a significant engineering challenge: weight. Traditional reinforced concrete (RC) PPVC modules are incredibly heavy, often weighing between 20 to 35 tonnes.47 

This mass creates major logistical hurdles, as the modules must comply with the Land Transport Authority’s (LTA) road transport limits on size and weight, and they require high-capacity tower cranes for hoisting, which is a major project cost.42

This is where composite structures provide the critical enabling solution. To overcome the weight problem, the industry is increasingly turning to lightweight steel-concrete composite systems for PPVC modules.47 By using a lighter steel frame for the module’s structure and combining it with lightweight concrete slabs, the module weight can be reduced by 20-35%.47 

This allows for the fabrication of larger modules, reducing the total number of units and crane lifts required, which in turn accelerates construction and improves cost-effectiveness. The development of advanced, lightweight composite modular systems is a direct consequence of the national push for PPVC, demonstrating a powerful feedback loop. 

The policy (DfMA/PPVC) created a technical problem (weight), which drove the industry to innovate a technological solution (lightweight composites), which is now being supported and standardized by the evolving regulatory framework. This integrated ecosystem is the defining feature of Singapore’s advanced construction sector.

The following table summarizes the key regulatory instruments and initiatives that form this unique Singaporean blueprint for composite construction.

Table 2: Key Provisions of Singapore’s Regulatory Framework for Composite Structures

 

Regulation/Code	Key Provision/Requirement	Relevance to Tall Building Design
SS EN 1994-1-1	The base European Standard for the design of composite steel and concrete structures for buildings.	Establishes the fundamental design principles, methodologies, and safety factors for all composite elements (beams, columns, slabs).
NA to SS EN 1994-1-1	The Singapore National Annex, which specifies the Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs) for use in Singapore.	Customizes the Eurocode for local practice, material standards, and environmental conditions, making it a legally enforceable standard. 35
BC4:2021 Design Guide	Extends the design rules of Eurocode 4 to high-strength materials, including concrete up to grade C90/105 and steel up to S550.	Directly enables the design of more slender and efficient composite columns for supertall buildings, maximizing usable floor area and reducing structural weight. 40
DfMA / PPVC Mandates	Government initiatives and land sales conditions requiring the use of DfMA and PPVC for certain projects to meet productivity targets.	Creates market demand for advanced construction technologies, driving innovation in lightweight modular systems where composites play a key role. 47
PPVC Manufacturer Accreditation Scheme (MAS)	A scheme launched by BCA and the Singapore Concrete Institute to certify PPVC manufacturers based on their quality management systems and production capabilities.	Ensures a high standard of quality, precision, and reliability for manufactured modules, which is critical for the structural integrity of tall PPVC buildings. 42

Sources: 35

 

Section 5: Engineering in Action: Landmark Composite Structures in Singapore

 

The principles of composite design and the policies of Singapore’s construction ecosystem converge in the city’s iconic skyline. An examination of its landmark towers reveals not just the application of these technologies, but their critical role in enabling architectural ambition and solving complex, site-specific engineering challenges.

 

5.1 Case Study: Guoco Tower – Engineering Singapore’s Tallest Building

 

Standing at an architectural height of 283.7 metres, Guoco Tower is Singapore’s tallest building, a mixed-use behemoth comprising premium office space, the Wallich Residence apartments, a hotel, and retail spaces.51 Designed by the world-renowned firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) with structural engineering by Arup, the tower’s structural system is officially classified as “Concrete-Steel Composite”.51

The building’s primary lateral stability is provided by a robust central core made of high-strength reinforced concrete, which acts as a massive vertical spine.2 However, the tower’s most significant structural challenge—and its most innovative composite feature—lies at the transition between the larger footprint of the office block and the more slender residential block above. This change in geometry creates immense structural transfer forces. To manage this, the engineering team at Arup devised an ingenious

transfer plate and belt-wall system.2 This system functions as a structural girdle, where large steel plates embedded with shear studs were cast directly into the concrete core wall. This composite connection ensures that the powerful horizontal ‘kick-out’ forces from the geometric shift are transferred directly and efficiently into the building’s primary concrete backbone, allowing the ambitious architectural form to be realized without compromising structural integrity.2

The foundation design was equally complex, requiring a deep pile-raft foundation to support the immense weight of the tower while navigating variable soil conditions and the close proximity of an existing Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) station.17 The project also showcased composite materials in its finishes, notably in the main lobby, which is lavishly clad in composite stone panels featuring Statuario marble bonded to an aluminum honeycomb backing—a first for a project of this magnitude in Singapore.53

 

5.2 Case Study: The Sail @ Marina Bay – Taming Slenderness with Innovative Concrete Systems

 

The twin residential towers of The Sail @ Marina Bay, soaring to 70 and 63 storeys, are famous for their extreme slenderness, with height-to-width aspect ratios exceeding 10, placing them among the most slender skyscrapers in the world.10 This slenderness presented a formidable challenge in controlling lateral sway.

The structural solution, while primarily using reinforced concrete, functions as a highly integrated composite system. The key innovation is a mega-coupled shear wall system.10 The partition walls between residential units, oriented across the building’s narrow axis, were designed as structural shear walls. 

These parallel walls are then “coupled” by very deep (up to 3-metre) reinforced concrete beams that span across the central corridor, particularly at mechanical floors. This coupling action forces the individual walls to work together as a single, exceptionally stiff unit, which reduced the building’s horizontal sway by a remarkable 46% compared to a conventional un-coupled system.10

The Sail was also a pioneer in material innovation. It was the first building project in Singapore to utilize Grade 80 high-strength concrete for its heavily loaded perimeter columns.11 This decision was critical for achieving the desired architectural outcome, as it allowed the column sizes to be reduced by a third compared to what would have been required with conventional Grade 60 concrete, thereby maximizing the panoramic views and valuable internal floor area.11 

The floor system also employed semi-precast reinforced composite slabs, which served as permanent formwork to speed up construction while ensuring the rigid diaphragm action needed to transfer lateral loads to the core.10

 

5.3 Case Study: CapitaSpring – A Biophilic Icon on a Hybrid Composite Frame

 

CapitaSpring is a 280-metre tall, mixed-use tower that has become a biophilic landmark, celebrated for its dramatic integration of nature, including a four-storey “Green Oasis” carved out of its mid-section and a rooftop sky garden.54 To achieve this radical architectural vision, the engineers employed a unique, vertically-zoned hybrid structural system, officially classified as

“Concrete Over Concrete-Steel Composite Over Concrete”.57

This classification describes a strategic deployment of different materials at different heights to meet specific functional needs:

• Floors 1-16 (and 22-51): The lower serviced residence block and the upper office block are constructed with a conventional and efficient reinforced concrete frame, comprising concrete columns and beams.57
• Floors 17-21 (The Green Oasis): This is the “Concrete-Steel Composite” section. To create the dramatic, 35-metre-tall, column-free void for the spiraling botanical promenade, the structural system transitions to a steel frame. Steel columns and long-span steel beams are used here to provide the necessary strength while minimizing structural intrusion, enabling the open, airy feel of the garden oasis.57

CapitaSpring is a perfect illustration of how composite design is used with surgical precision. The steel composite section is not used throughout the building, but is deployed exactly where it is needed to solve a specific architectural challenge—creating a large, open volume that would have been impractical with a conventional concrete frame. 

This case study showcases the ultimate flexibility of hybrid design, where the choice of structural material is tailored to the function of each vertical zone within the tower.

 

5.4 Case Study: Avenue South Residence & The Clement Canopy – Pushing the Limits of High-Rise PPVC

 

These two residential projects represent the cutting edge of Singapore’s DfMA and PPVC strategy. Upon its completion, the 40-storey The Clement Canopy was the tallest reinforced concrete PPVC building in the world, a record now held by the twin 56-storey towers of Avenue South Residence.42

The structural system in these towers consists of load-bearing RC PPVC modules. While the modules themselves are concrete, the critical composite action occurs at the connections between them. To ensure the stacked modules behave as a monolithic structure, the vertical joints between the walls of adjacent modules are filled with high-strength grout and reinforced with horizontal tying steel. 

This process creates a “sandwiched composite shear wall” system, where the individual precast walls and the in-situ grouted joint work together as a single, robust structural element to resist lateral loads.42

Furthermore, the overall building structure is a hybrid system. The assembled PPVC modules are designed to carry the gravity loads and contribute to the building’s lateral stiffness. However, for buildings of this height, the primary resistance to wind and seismic forces is provided by a central, conventionally cast-in-situ reinforced concrete core.42 

The rigid floor diaphragms, formed by the connected modules at each level, are responsible for transferring the lateral loads from the building’s perimeter into this central stabilizing core. 

These projects are living proof of the successful implementation of Singapore’s industrialised building strategy at a massive scale, demonstrating how composite principles are being applied even within precast concrete systems to achieve unprecedented heights.

The following table consolidates the key features of these landmark projects, providing a comparative overview of how composite structures are being deployed to solve diverse engineering and architectural challenges across Singapore’s skyline.

Table 3: Overview of Key Singaporean Composite Tall Buildings

 

Building Name	Architectural Height (m)	Completion Year	Primary Function	Structural System	Key Composite Features & Innovations
Guoco Tower	283.7	2016	Mixed-Use (Office/Residential)	Concrete-Steel Composite	High-strength concrete core; innovative composite steel plate transfer system at the geometric transition between office and residential blocks. 2
The Sail @ Marina Bay	245.0	2008	Residential	Reinforced Concrete (with composite action)	Mega-coupled shear wall system for extreme slenderness; pioneering use of Grade 80 high-strength concrete; semi-precast composite floor slabs. 10
CapitaSpring	280.0	2021	Mixed-Use (Office/Hotel)	Concrete Over Concrete-Steel Composite Over Concrete	Vertically zoned hybrid system; a composite steel frame is used at mid-height to create the 35m-tall “Green Oasis” void. 57
Avenue South Residence	192.0	2023	Residential	RC PPVC with Hybrid System	World’s tallest PPVC building; load-bearing concrete modules form “sandwiched composite shear walls” at joints; relies on a central in-situ concrete core for primary lateral stability. 42

Sources: 2

 

Section 6: The Future of the Singaporean Skyscraper: Emerging Trends and Innovations

 

The story of Singapore’s vertical development is one of continuous evolution. As the city-state looks to the future, a new wave of advanced materials, digital technologies, and manufacturing processes promises to redefine the limits of high-rise design. 

The synergy between materials and methods will become even more critical, pushing towards skyscrapers that are not only taller and more efficient but also more sustainable, intelligent, and adaptable.

 

6.1 Advanced Materials and Evolving Forms

 

The future of tall building construction lies in materials that offer superior performance with less environmental impact. While steel-concrete composites will remain a cornerstone, the industry is actively exploring the next generation of materials.60

• Advanced Composites and Concretes: Research is pushing into materials like Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs), which offer incredible strength-to-weight ratios and corrosion resistance, and Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC), which provides compressive strengths far exceeding conventional concrete, enabling even more slender structural elements.60
• Mass Engineered Timber (MET): One of the most significant emerging trends is the use of MET, such as Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT) and Glued-Laminated Timber (Glulam).61 MET is a sustainable and lightweight alternative to traditional materials. The future likely lies in hybrid timber-composite structures, where a building might feature a concrete or composite core for stability, combined with a lighter MET floor and framing system.2 This approach, actively supported by the BCA, combines the sustainability and rapid construction benefits of timber with the proven strength and stiffness of composite systems.2
• Evolving Geometries: These advanced materials will continue to liberate architects from the constraints of traditional forms. The trend is already moving away from simple prismatic shapes towards more aerodynamically efficient and architecturally expressive tapered and freeform towers.28 Composite structures are essential for realizing these complex geometries, as they provide the necessary strength and adaptability to handle the irregular load paths and structural demands of non-linear forms.28

 

6.2 Digital Transformation in Design and Construction

 

The design and management of complex high-rise buildings are being revolutionized by digital technologies. Singapore is at the forefront of this transformation, moving beyond basic Building Information Modeling (BIM) to a more holistic approach.2

• Integrated Digital Delivery (IDD): IDD aims to create a fully connected digital ecosystem that spans the entire building lifecycle. It integrates BIM models with data from procurement, fabrication, and on-site assembly, creating a seamless flow of information from the design studio to the factory floor and the construction site.2 This is the digital backbone that makes complex DfMA and PPVC projects possible.
• Digital Twinning: The next frontier is the concept of a “digital twin”—a live, data-rich virtual replica of the physical building.60 By feeding real-time data from sensors within the structure into the digital model, building operators can monitor structural health, optimize energy performance, predict maintenance needs, and simulate responses to future events.
• AI-Powered Optimization: Artificial intelligence and generative design algorithms are beginning to play a role in structural optimization. These tools can run thousands of design iterations to find the most efficient solution for a given set of constraints, for example, determining the optimal placement of outriggers in a skyscraper to achieve maximum stiffness with minimum material, or optimizing the shape of a composite beam for strength and weight.12

 

6.3 The Next Wave of Industrialisation: Automation in DfMA

 

The DfMA philosophy is set to evolve from prefabrication to a state of true advanced manufacturing, driven by automation and robotics.41

• Advanced Manufacturing and Assembly (AMA): This initiative envisions the production of building components in highly automated, factory-like settings.41 This will involve greater use of robotics for tasks like welding, cutting, and assembly, further boosting productivity, precision, and safety while reducing the reliance on manual labor.41
• 3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing): While still in its nascent stages for large-scale construction, additive manufacturing holds immense potential. It could be used to 3D print complex, optimized formwork for concrete elements or even to fabricate intricate structural nodes for steel frames.60 In the long term, the ability to print customized, multi-material composite components directly could fundamentally change how buildings are designed and built.64

 

Conclusion: The Enduring Synergy

 

The towering silhouette of Singapore is more than just a collection of impressive buildings; it is a physical manifestation of a highly sophisticated and integrated approach to urban development. This analysis has demonstrated that the city-state’s ability to build taller, faster, and more efficiently is not an accident of economics but the direct result of the strategic and widespread adoption of composite structures. 

These hybrid systems are the indispensable technological backbone that supports Singapore’s vertical ambitions.

The engineering challenges of height—the overwhelming dominance of lateral loads and the critical need for weight optimization—create a fundamental design tension that cannot be resolved efficiently by monolithic materials. 

Composite construction, by intelligently combining the tensile strength and lightness of steel with the compressive strength and stiffness of concrete, provides the elegant solution to this paradox. It delivers the high performance required for stability and occupant comfort without the crippling penalty of excessive mass.

This technological solution does not exist in a vacuum. Its success in Singapore is amplified by a unique and powerful ecosystem. It begins with a national strategy, driven by the constraints of land and labor, that champions productivity through industrialisation. 

This policy, in the form of the DfMA and PPVC initiatives, creates a clear market demand for advanced, lightweight construction systems. This demand, in turn, drives technological innovation in the field of steel-concrete composites. 

Finally, this innovation is supported and standardized by a forward-looking regulatory framework, led by the BCA, that embraces international best practices like the Eurocodes while proactively developing its own supplementary guides, such as BC4:2021, to push the boundaries of what is possible.

The landmark case studies of Guoco Tower, The Sail @ Marina Bay, CapitaSpring, and the nation’s world-leading PPVC projects serve as concrete evidence of this synergy in action. 

They showcase how composite systems are deployed with surgical precision to solve complex challenges, whether it be transferring massive loads in a geometrically complex tower, taming the sway of an exceptionally slender building, or enabling the creation of a gravity-defying green oasis.

Looking ahead, the future of Singapore’s skyline will be shaped by an even deeper integration of materials, methods, and data. The synergy between advanced composites, sustainable materials like Mass Engineered Timber, and the transformative power of digital design and automated manufacturing will continue to evolve. 

The story of the Singaporean skyscraper is, and will continue to be, a story of an enduring and ever-advancing synergy—a partnership between steel and concrete, between architects and engineers, and between industry and government—all working in concert to build a resilient, productive, and remarkable vertical city.

Works cited

1. Innovative Technologies and Future Trends in Tall Building Design and Construction, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.isites.info/pastconferences/isites2014/isites2014/papers/c7-isites2014id175.pdf
2. High-Rise Design in Singapore for Wind and Seismic Forces, accessed July 20, 2025, https://structures.com.sg/skyward-resilient-high-rise-design-singapore-wind-seismic-forces/
3. Structural Systems for Tall Buildings – MDPI, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2673-8392/2/3/85
4. SEISMIC VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT OF HIGH … – IRJMETS, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.irjmets.com/upload_newfiles/irjmets70600207833/paper_file/irjmets70600207833.pdf
5. Comparative Study of Various High Rise Building Lateral Load Resisting Systems for Seismic Load & Wind Load: A Review – IRJET, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.irjet.net/archives/V8/i1/IRJET-V8I156.pdf
6. Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects – SciSpace, accessed July 20, 2025, https://scispace.com/pdf/structural-developments-in-tall-buildings-current-trends-and-5txk4id0a6.pdf
7. Tall Buildings, 2012 – Singapore, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.corenet.gov.sg/einfo/Uploads/Events/EIES120921.pdf
8. Comparing the structural system of some contemporary high rise building form – Fayoum University Journal of Engineering, accessed July 20, 2025, https://fuje.journals.ekb.eg/article_22359_7e88c8d003e7164a836b582bcb05b995.pdf
9. Design Of Tall Buildings Preliminary Design And Optimization – Worcester Polytechnic Institute, accessed July 20, 2025, https://web.wpi.edu/Images/CMS/VF/tallbuidings3.pdf
10. The Sail at Marina Bay, Singapore 1. Book chapter/Part … – ctbuh, accessed July 20, 2025, https://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/1030-the-sail-at-marina-bay-singapore.pdf
11. The Sail BCA Awards Write-Up-Final | PDF | Precast Concrete – Scribd, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/65179720/The-Sail-BCA-Awards-Write-Up-Final
12. weight optimization of high-rise buildings using genetic algorithm – ResearchGate, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320930521_weight_optimization_of_high-rise_buildings_using_genetic_algorithm
13. Tall Building Structures Analysis And Design, accessed July 20, 2025, https://stat.somervillema.gov/HomePages/fulldisplay/4040147/TallBuildingStructuresAnalysisAndDesign.pdf
14. Structural Developments in Tall Buildings: Current Trends and Future Prospects, accessed July 20, 2025, https://mahungroup.com/Structural%20Developments%20in%20Tall%20Buildings.pdf
15. Challenges in the Design of Tall Building Foundations – ResearchGate, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273949144_Challenges_in_the_Design_of_Tall_Building_Foundations
16. technical guide – soletanche bachy, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.soletanche-bachy.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/18/2024/09/Technical-Guide-2016_187x265_BD.pdf
17. Arup Singapore Utilizes 3D Soil Simulations to Design the Foundation of the Tallest Tower in the Country – Bentley Systems, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.bentley.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/CS-Arup-Singapore-LTR-EN-LR.pdf
18. Composite structures | thestructuralengineer.info, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.thestructuralengineer.info/education/structure-types/composite-structures
19. Composite Structures In Civil Engineering – FasterCapital, accessed July 20, 2025, https://fastercapital.com/topics/composite-structures-in-civil-engineering.html/1
20. The Rise of Structural Composites, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.building-composites.com/resources/transforming-architecture
21. Form Follows Function – The Composite Construction and … – ctbuh, accessed July 20, 2025, https://global.ctbuh.org/resources/papers/download/2289-form-follows-function-the-composite-construction-and-mixed-structures-in-modern-tall-buildings.pdf
22. Designing With Composites: Engineering Fundamentals – Norplex-Micarta, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.norplex-micarta.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/Designing-with-Composites.pdf
23. www.structurama.com, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.structurama.com/blog/challenges-in-high-rise-building-design/#:~:text=Composite%20structures%20use%20steel%20and,for%20modern%20high%2Drise%20buildings.
24. Challenges in High-Rise Building Design – Structurama, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.structurama.com/blog/challenges-in-high-rise-building-design/
25. Advances in Structural Systems for Tall Buildings: Emerging … – MDPI, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/8/8/104?type=check_update&version=1
26. Composite Construction: Know Definition, Principle, Advantages & application – Testbook, accessed July 20, 2025, https://testbook.com/civil-engineering/composite-construction
27. OPTIMISATION OF LATERAL LOAD- RESISTING SYSTEMS IN COMPOSITE HIGH- RISE BUILDINGS – QUT ePrints, accessed July 20, 2025, https://eprints.qut.edu.au/67563/2/Tabassum_Fatima_Thesis.pdf
28. Comparative Analysis of Space Efficiency in Skyscrapers with …, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/14/11/3345
29. (PDF) . Composite Design and Construction of a Tall Building — Cheung Kong Center, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/344224791_Composite_Design_and_Construction_of_a_Tall_Building_-_Cheung_Kong_Center
30. State-of-the-art of advanced inelastic analysis of steel and composite structures – Techno Press, accessed July 20, 2025, http://www.techno-press.org/download.php?journal=scs&volume=1&num=3&ordernum=6
31. REVIEW PAPER ON COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF LATERAL LOAD RESISTANCE IN TALL BUILDINGS OUTRIGGER VS NON, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.ijprems.com/uploadedfiles/paper/issue_5_may_2025/40890/final/fin_ijprems1746300581.pdf
32. Design of Slender Tall Buildings For Wind and Earthquake | PDF | Truss – Scribd, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/369625153/Design-of-Slender-Tall-Buildings-for-Wind-and-Earthquake-1
33. Singapore Building Codes & Guides – ARCHLOGBOOK, accessed July 20, 2025, https://docs.archlogbook.co/singapore-building-codes-and-guides
34. Codes, Acts, and Regulations | Building and Construction Authority …, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www1.bca.gov.sg/about-us/news-and-publications/publications-reports/codes-acts-and-regulations
35. Steel Design Awards 2010 – Singapore Structural Steel Society, accessed July 20, 2025, http://www.ssss.org.sg/~ssssorgs/images/stories/docs/newsletter/SSSS_SN&N_Jun_Sept_2010_Issue.pdf
36. Design of Steel-Concrete Composite Buildings Using Eurocode 4 | PDF | Cheque – Scribd, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/doc/237384815/77091
37. EN 1994-1-1 (2004) (English): Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures, accessed July 20, 2025, http://www.phd.eng.br/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/en.1994.1.1.2004.pdf
38. Singapore National Annex to Eurocode 4 : Design of composite steel and concrete structures, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.singaporestandardseshop.sg/Product/GetPdf?fileName=180331134657NA%20to%20SS%20EN%201994-1-1-2009_Preview.pdf&pdtid=08b79411-2cfe-4950-8aeb-43149127a4de
39. Eurocode 4 : Design of composite steel and concrete structures – – Singapore Standards, accessed July 20, 2025, http://www.singaporestandardseshop.sg/data/ECopyFileStore/120228095321SS%20EN%201994-2-2011-Preview.pdf
40. BC4:2021 – Building and Construction Authority (BCA), accessed July 20, 2025, https://www1.bca.gov.sg/docs/default-source/docs-corp-regulatory/building-control/bc4-2021.pdf
41. Design for Manufacturing and Assembly | AcePLP, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.aceplp.com.sg/design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly/
42. PPVC Structural Design, High-Rise Challenges, Singapore, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.aectechnicalsg.com/ppvc-structural-design-singapore/
43. DfMA – DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING ASSEMBLY: Pre-Fabrication Design and Fabrication – Accesstech Engineering Pte Ltd | BRINGING YOU THE BEST IN ENGINEERING SERVICES, accessed July 20, 2025, https://accesstech.com.sg/dfma-design-for-manufacturing-assembly-pre-fabrication-design-and-fabrication/
44. Design for manufacturing and assembly (DfMA): a preliminary study of factors influencing its adoption in Singapore – Find an Expert – The University of Melbourne, accessed July 20, 2025, https://findanexpert.unimelb.edu.au/scholarlywork/1347166-design-for-manufacturing-and-assembly-(dfma)–a-preliminary-study-of-factors-influencing-its-adoption-in-singapore
45. DfMA Course: Master Design for Manufacturing and Assembly in Construction, accessed July 20, 2025, https://scal-academy.com.sg/courses/course_detail/Design-for-Manufacturing-and-Assembly/12938
46. DfMA in Building Design and Construction: Uses and Abuses, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.dfma.com/forum/2019pdf/kuzmanovska.pdf
47. Steel concrete composite systems for modular construction of high-rise buildings, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.arataumodular.com/app/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Steel-Concrete-Composite-Systems-for-Modular-Construction-of-High-rise-Buildings.pdf
48. Steel Concrete Composite Systems for Modular Construction of High-rise Buildings, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326501779_Steel_Concrete_Composite_Systems_for_Modular_Construction_of_High-rise_Buildings
49. Steel concrete composite systems for modular construction of high-rise buildings, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331306591_Steel_concrete_composite_systems_for_modular_construction_of_high-rise_buildings
50. (PDF) COMPARATIVE STUDY OF IPS & PPVC PRECAST SYSTEM- A CASE STUDY OF PUBLIC HOUSING BUILDINGS PROJECT IN SINGAPORE – ResearchGate, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325397934_COMPARATIVE_STUDY_OF_IPS_PPVC_PRECAST_SYSTEM-_A_CASE_STUDY_OF_PUBLIC_HOUSING_BUILDINGS_PROJECT_IN_SINGAPORE
51. Guoco Tower – The Skyscraper Center, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/guoco-tower/15186
52. Guoco Tower – Wikipedia, accessed July 20, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guoco_Tower
53. 2017 PINNACLE AWARDS OF EXCELLENCE – Natural Stone Institute, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.naturalstoneinstitute.org/default/assets/file/awards/pinnacles/2017_pinnacle_awards_brochure_final_web.pdf
54. CapitaSpring | YKK AP Global Website, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.ykkapglobal.com/en/technologies/installation-examples/capitaspring/
55. CapitaSpring – Arup, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.arup.com/projects/capitaspring/
56. CapitaSpring – Design Fact Sheet – CapitaLand, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.capitaland.com/content/dam/capitaland-newsroom/International/2022/february/capitaspring-marks-completion/CapitaSpring_Design_Fact_Sheet.pdf
57. CapitaSpring – The Skyscraper Center, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/capitaspring/30683
58. A FEASIBILITY STUDY OF APPLYING MODULAR INTEGRATED CONSTRUCTION (MIC) TO PRIVATE PROPERTY DEVELOPMENT IN HONG KONG, accessed July 20, 2025, https://hub.hku.hk/bitstream/10722/315443/1/FullText.pdf
59. Topic 3 Singapore PPVC Project Case Studies (Clement Canopy …, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.scribd.com/document/436231395/Topic-3-Singapore-Ppvc-Project-Case-Studies-Clement-Canopy-Part-2-by-Mr-Khor-Yew-Chai
60. The Future of Skyscrapers: Advanced Materials and Design, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/future-skyscrapers-advanced-materials-design
61. (PDF) Analysis of the Main Architectural and Structural Design Considerations in Tall Timber Buildings – ResearchGate, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/376750460_Analysis_of_the_Main_Architectural_and_Structural_Design_Considerations_in_Tall_Timber_Buildings
62. Sustainable and Efficient Structural Systems for Tall Buildings: Exploring Timber and Steel–Timber Hybrids through a Case Study – MDPI, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/14/2/524
63. Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DfMA) of Digital Fabrication (Dfab) and Additive Manufacturing (AM) in Construction: A Review | Request PDF – ResearchGate, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/365435770_Design_for_Manufacture_and_Assembly_DfMA_of_Digital_Fabrication_Dfab_and_Additive_Manufacturing_AM_in_Construction_A_Review

Emerging trends in the growth of structural systems for tall buildings …, accessed July 20, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343304926_Emerging_trends_in_the_growth_of_structural_systems_for_tall_buildings